Regulation of F1-ATPase beta subunit cellular location

ABSTRACT

It has been discovered that the ability of analogues to affect binding of a labeled β-casomorphin (an enterostatin antagonist) to recombinant rat F 1 -ATPase β-subunit was closely correlated with their enterostatin-like biological activity. Using immunohistochemistry and western blots, the presence of the F 1 -ATPase β-subunit was demonstrated in plasma membranes of liver, pancreas and amygdala. The effects of enterostatin on the intracellular localization of the proteins were studied using deconvolution or confocal microscopy. Enterostatin did not alter the location of F 1 -ATPase a-subunit-RFP but induced movement of the F 1 -ATPase β-subunit-GFP to the periphery of cells. These studies, showing the plasma membrane localization of the F 1 -ATPase β-subunit, the influence of enterostatin on the cellular location of the protein, the appropriate Kd value for binding, together with the previous correlation of binding effects with biological activity for a number of analogues, indicate that this protein is the enterostatin receptor.

This is the United States national stage of international application PCT/US05/37779, filed Oct. 19, 2005, which claims the benefit of the Nov. 12, 2004 filing date of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/627,455 under 35 U.S.C. §119(e).

The development of this invention was partially funded by the Government under a grant from the National Institute of Health (NIDDK45728). The Government has certain rights in this invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention pertains to a method to regulate the amount of a peptide receptor, the F₁-ATPase β subunit, in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells, a method to screen patients for response to enterostatin treatment, and a method to screen for compounds that are agonists or antagonists for enterostatin.

BACKGROUND ART

Enterostatin

Enterostatin is the aminoterminal pentapeptide of procolipase that is released by proteolytic activity when procolipase is converted into colipase (9). The procolipase gene is expressed in the exocrine pancreas and the gastric and duodenal mucosa (25, 34, 53). In the gastric mucosa, the gene appears to be concentrated in enterochromaffin cells. More recently, procolipase and enterostatin were shown to be present in specific brain regions including the amygdala and hypothalamus (12).

Enterostatin Effects on Feeding Behavior. The peptide enterostatin has a dose-dependent and selective effect to inhibit fat intake in a number of dietary paradigms. The first criteria for establishing the physiological role of a peptide on feeding behavior is that inhibits food or macronutrient intake in rats adapted to a three-choice macronutrient diet of fat, carbohydrate and protein (7, 36, 37). Enterostatin reduced intake of the fat macronutrient, but had no effect on either carbohydrate or protein intake. In a two-choice high-fat (HF) and low-fat (LF) diet paradigm experiment, enterostatin reduced only intake of the HF diet, but not of the LF diet (15) Similarly, enterostatin reduced intake of single dietary source when the source was HF (17), but not when LF. The ability of enterostatin to selectively inhibit fat intake on a two- or three-choice feeding paradigm has been demonstrated after administration of enterostatin by either intraperitoneal, intracerebroventricular (icv), intraduodenal/intragastric, and near celiac arterial injection (15, 16, 19, 22, 27, 29, 52, 57). Similar to other gut peptides, enterostatin appeared to have at least two sites of action, one in the gastrointestinal tract and one in the central nervous system (20, 49, 57).

While the majority of the feeding studies with enterostatin have been performed in overnight fasted rats that have been previously adapted to the experimental diets, the selective effects towards dietary fat have been shown in free-feeding rats injected at the start of the dark cycle. The potency of enterostatin is reflected in the long duration of action on feeding, lasting up to six hours after a single injection in rats adapted to a six-hour feeding schedule, and lasting up to 24 hours after a single injection in rats adapted to ad-libitum feeding. Chronic icv administration of enterostatin from mini-osmotic pumps also attenuated the daily intake of dietary fat in rats fed either a single-choice HF diet or a two-choice HF/LF diet (15, 35). The decrease in daily food intake was accompanied by a reduction in fat deposition and body weight gain. However, in rats chronically treated with enterostatin and fed a low-fat diet for seven days, no significant reduction was seen in either energy intake or change in body weight gain. An intriguing characteristic of the response to enterostatin in both acute and chronic studies was that the reduction in intake of dietary fat is not compensated by an increase in the intake of other macronutrients when a dietary choice is available. This may result from a concomitant increase in corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) secretion since enterostatin is known to activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (35).

Enterostatin has also been shown to reduce food intake in rabbits, sheep, and baboons (8, 30, 51). However, all of these studies were performed with single-choice diets. In humans, enterostatin administered by intravenous injection was found to reduce the subjective feeling of hunger (44), although has not been found to reduce food intake (43).

Enterostatin effects on fat intake appear to be expressed at both gastrointestinal and central nervous system (CNS) sites. The response to peripherally-administered enterostatin was found to be mediated through the hepatic vagus nerve; the response was abolished by either selective hepatic vagotomy or capsaicin treatment (32, 49). Within the CNS, enterostatin was found to act on both the amygdala and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) (12, 14, 20). Enterostatin inhibited fat intake by way of a pathway that contained both serotonergic (55) and kappa-opioidergic (38) neurons. Kappa-opioidergic agonists inhibited the enterostatin effects on feeding, and a K-opioidergic antagonist or nor-Binaltorphamine (BNI) mimicked the effect of enterostatin on selective fat intake (1, 38). In contrast, the general serotonergic antagonist, metergoline but not a 5HT2 receptor antagonist, blocked the response to icv-administered enterostatin (57), and serotonin injections into the PVN inhibited dietary fat intake (10, 45).

A physiological regulator of feeding behavior must be effective at dose levels that are present in the animal. The in vivo concentration of enterostatin has not been established, due to problems in measuring enterostatin. Antibodies that are selective to enterostatin that could be used to analyze tissue levels of enterostatin have been difficult to find. The current values for enterostatin all appear very high, for example, plasma serum enterostatin of 5-40 nM in humans (4) and rats, cerebral spinal fluid enterostatin of 18-92 ng/ml, and brain enterostatin levels of 2.5 nmoles/g tissue (11). A suggestion of the existence of multiple forms of enterostatin in rats and in humans because of genetic polymorphisms in the enterostatin region of the procolipase parent molecule further complicates the efforts to measure enterostatin (11, 46). However, other data has disputed the suggestion of multiple forms (53, 54). Despite these measurement problems, enterostatin-like immunoreactivity has been shown to increase both in human serum and urine after a meal in a biphasic manner (4), and in lymph fluid of cats (50) and serum of rats after feeding (9).

Enterostatin regulation of insulin secretion. Several studies have shown that enterostatin inhibits insulin secretion (24, 26, 28, 39, 42, 47). In vivo perfusion of isolated islets and of the rat pancreas has been used to demonstrate that enterostatin directly inhibits insulin release from islet cells induced by either glucose, tolbutamide, or arginine. (39) Enterostatin (10⁻⁹ to 10⁻⁵ M) inhibited insulin secretion from islets incubated in the presence of 16.7 mM glucose in a dose-dependent manner. Enterostatin also inhibited insulin secretion stimulated by glybenclamide (5.0 and 10 μM), phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate (TPA) (50 and 100 nM), and the kappa-opioid agonist U50,488 (100 nM). The inhibitory effect of enterostatin on TPA-induced insulin secretion was attenuated, but still remained in the absence of extracellular Ca²⁺. The enterostatin inhibition of insulin secretion was blocked by 8-Br-cAMP (1 mM), independent of extracellular Ca²⁺. Enterostatin reduced the increase in intracellular cyclic AMP content produced by U50,488 (100 nM), in a manner parallel with changes in insulin release (42).

In vivo studies also have shown a reduction in insulin levels without any changes in plasma glucose suggesting an improvement in insulin sensitivity (15, 35). This occurred after both peripheral and central administration of enterostatin, reflecting both direct effects on the islet cells and indirect effects by way of a reduction in vagal stimulation to the pancreas.

Other Effects of Enterostatin. Enterostatin also been shown to affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric emptying (21, 40). The inhibition of gastric emptying was observed only after intracerebroventricular administration of enterostatin, but not after either intraperitoneal or intragastric administration, suggesting that enterostatin also affects efferent vagal activity. However, the inhibitory effect of enterostatin on consumption of a high fat diet was not related to the slowdown of gastric emptying (21). Enterostatin also had direct effects on pig intestine to prolong the quiescent phase I period of peristalsis, which slows down the absorption of nutrients and prolongs intestinal transit time. Enterostatin may also reduce cholesterol levels (48).

Enterostatin also has shown a number of autonomic and endocrine effects in addition to the effect on insulin secretion. It enhanced corticosterone secretion (35) and sympathetic stimulation to brown adipose tissue (32, 33), which would increase thermogenesis (41). These responses, in addition to the suppression of dietary fat intake, help explain the reduction in weight gain and body fat that was seen in rats treated chronically with either peripheral or central enterostatin (15, 35).

Circulating enterostatin. Enterostatin absorption across the intestine was found to be limited and slow, occurring mainly into lymphatic system. Detailed information of the changes in plasma enterostatin or brain uptake of enterostatin after a meal currently exist that would allow a temporal comparison with the termination of feeding and the development of satiety. The data that are available indicate the rise in plasma immunoreactive-like enterostatin activity is slow and does not peak until at least 60 minutes after feeding, which is inconsistent with a theory that an increase in circulating enterostatin plays a role in the termination of the immediate meal.

The presence of procolipase mRNA in the CNS together with enterostatin-like immunoreactivity has been demonstrated, (12, Lin and York, unpublished observations). Enterostatin also was found at high levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of rats. A hypothesis that this central system is important in determining the appetite for dietary fat is consistent with the evidence that endogenous production of enterostatin is reciprocally related to voluntary selection of fat across and within rat strains.

Enterostatin Receptors. Based on the areas responding to enterostatin, receptors would be expected to be located in brain, pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract. Enterostatin has been shown not to bind to the galanin or Neuropeptide Y1 receptors (17), kappa-opioid receptors or cholecystokinin A receptors (13) Low affinity enterostatin binding was shown to a brain membrane preparation (Kd 230 nM) (56) and to SK-N-MC neuroepithelioma cells (Kd 40 nM) (2). The dose-response curve to enterostatin is biphasic, exhibiting an inhibition of food intake at lower doses, but stimulation of food intake at higher doses (22). However, since enterostatin has been shown to be biologically active on food intake at extremely low doses compared to other peptides and to inhibit insulin secretion from isolated pancreatic islets at doses of 10⁻¹⁰ to 10⁻⁶ M, a proposed low affinity casomorphin binding site probably is not the biologically important enterostatin receptor that inhibits fat intake and insulin secretion.

The F₁ ATPase Receptor. Studies using classical affinity chromatography have identified a binding protein for enterostatin from rat brain membrane fractions (2). The receptor was identified as the β subunit of the F₁-ATP synthase, an enzyme normally found in mitochondrial membranes. This protein has been found in the plasma membranes of immortalized human hepatocytes, HepG2 cells, primary human hepatocytes, lymphocytes, and endothelial cells. (5, 6, 23, 31). In endothelial cells, the enzyme probably acts as an ATPase rather than an ATP synthase. On liver cells, the beta subunit was found to bind ApoA-1 and to regulate endocytosis of high density lipoprotein (HDL) particles. (23). The F₁-ATPase of lymphocytes and endothelial cells was found to bind angiostatin, and speculated to have a role in angiogenesis. (31). The inhibition of insulin secretion from INS-1 cells by enterostatin has also been related to a reduction in ATP levels (2).

DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION

We have investigated that the binding activity of the purified protein with a labeled antagonist, β-casomorphin (18, 52), in the absence and presence of cold enterostatin. (See Appendix B) ¹²⁵I-β-casomorphin weekly binds to rat F₁-ATPase β-subunit. Binding was promoted by low concentrations of cold enterostatin but displaced by higher concentrations. The relationship between binding activity and feeding behavior was studied by examining the ability of a number of enterostatin analogs to affect β-casomorphin binding to the F₁-ATPase β-subunit. Peptides that suppressed food intake promoted β-casomorphin binding whereas peptides that stimulated food intake or did not affect the food intake displaced β-casomorphin binding. Surface plasmon resonance binding could be detected enterostatin to the beta subunit of F₁-ATPase complex with a Kd of 150 nM. Western blot analysis showed the F₁-ATPase β-subunit was present on plasma and mitochondrial membranes of rat liver, pancreas, and amygdala. The data provides evidence that the F₁-ATPase β-subunit is the enterostatin receptor and suggests that enterostatin and β-casomorphin bind to distinct sites on the protein.

We have discovered that enterostatin can cause the translocation of the F₁-ATPase beta subunit to the plasma membrane. This should increase the level of plasma membrane ATPase activity and regulate membrane functions and intracellular metabolism through changes in ATP, ADP or AMP concentrations. The initial demonstration utilized Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)-tagged protein transfected into HepG2 cells, and showed that enterostatin induced a movement of the protein to the perimeter of cells. Since the available literature has identified this protein as present in the plasma membranes of a number, but not all, cell types, the ability to induce translocation of this protein to the plasma membrane will have a variety of biological effects depending upon the cell type. Increasing its presence in the plasma membranes of hepatocytes would increase binding to ApoA-1, regulating endocytosis of HDL particles, and affecting cholesterol transport; of lymphocytes would increase angiostatin binding affecting angiogenesis and tumor growth; of endothelial cells would affect inflammatory responses or vascular integrity; and of pancreatic cells would modulate the inhibitory effect of enterostatin on insulin secretion. Thus, the ability to regulate the localization of enterostatin to the plasma membrane could regulate insulin secretion, cholesterol and lipid transport, angiogenesis and tumor growth.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates the structure of the F₁-ATPase beta subunit—GFP construct.

FIG. 1B illustrates the structure of the F₁-ATPase alpha subunit—RFP construct.

FIG. 2A illustrates micrographs from deconvolution microscopy with and without a fluorescence filter when viewing HepG2 cells transformed with the F₁-ATPase beta subunit—GFP construct treated with either 0.5 μM (Panels 1-4) or 2 μM (Panels 5-8) enterostatin for 0 min (Panels 1 and 5), 15 min (Panels 2 and 6), 30 min (Panels 3 and 7), and 60 min (Panels 4 and 8).

FIG. 2B illustrates micrographs from deconvolution microscopy with and without a fluorescence filter when viewing on HepG2 cells transformed with the F₁-ATPase alpha subunit—RFP construct treated with either 0.5 μM (Panels 1-4) or 2 μM (Panels 5-8) enterostatin for 0 min (Panels 1 and 5), 15 min (Panels 2 and 6), 30 min (Panel 3), and 60 min (Panel 4).

FIG. 3A illustrates micrographs from confocal microscopy when viewing HepG2 cells transformed with the F₁-ATPase beta subunit—GFP construct treated with 2 μM enterostatin for 0 min (Panels 1, 2 and 3) and 75 min (Panels 4, 5, and 6).

FIG. 3B illustrates micrographs from confocal microscopy when viewing HepG2 cells transformed with the F₁-ATPase alpha subunit—RFP construct treated with 2 μM enterostatin for 0 min (Panels 7 and 8) and 40 min (Panels 9 and 10).

FIG. 4A illustrates the results of a Western blot analysis showing the location of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in rat amygdala cells in both the plasma membrane (PM) and mitochondrial membrane (MT).

FIG. 4B illustrates the results of a Western blot analysis showing the location of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in rat liver cells in both the plasma membrane (PM) and mitochondrial membrane (MT).

FIG. 4C illustrates the results of a Western blot analysis showing the location of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in rat pancreas cells in both the plasma membrane (PM) and mitochondrial membrane (MT).

FIG. 4D illustrates the results of immunohistochemistry analysis showing the location of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in rat liver cells in the plasma membrane (PM).

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

It has been discovered that the ability of analogues to affect binding of a labeled β-casomorphin (an enterostatin antagonist (44, 52)) to recombinant rat F₁-ATPase β-subunit was closely correlated with their enterostatin-like biological activity. Using BiaCore Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy, a Kd of 150 nM for enterostatin binding to the purified protein was found. Using immunohistochemistry and western blots, the presence of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit was demonstrated in plasma membranes of liver, pancreas and amygdala. To investigate the partitioning of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into plasma membranes, HepG2 cells were transfected with either F₁-ATPase β-subunit-green fluorescent protein (GFP) or F₁-ATPase α-subunit-red fluorescent protein (RFP) constructs. The effects of enterostatin on the intracellular localization of the proteins were studied using deconvolution or confocal microscopy. Enterostatin did not alter the location of F₁-ATPase α-subunit-RFP but induced movement of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit-GFP to the periphery of cells. These studies, showing the plasma membrane localization of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit, the influence of enterostatin on the cellular location of the protein, the appropriate Kd value for binding, together with the previous correlation of binding effects with biological activity for a number of analogues, indicate that this protein is the enterostatin receptor. Further, the ATPase activity of the β-subunit indicates that enterostatin signals through changes in intracellular ATP levels.

EXAMPLE 1

Materials and Methods

Generation of F₁-ATPase beta subunit-GFP fusion protein. The F₁-ATPase β-subunit clone (1,254 bp) was generated by PCR from an amygdala cDNA library using F₁-ATPase β-subunit forward primer (5′GAGAGGAGCTCCACTATTGCTATGGATGGC3′ (SEQ ID NO. 1), Sac I recognition site underlined) and F₁-ATPase β-subunit reverse primer (5′GAGAGAAGCTTCACGACCCATGCTC3′ (SEQ ID NO. 2), Hind III recognition site underlined), according to procedures described in Appendix B. The PCR product was cloned into the pEGFP-C1 vector (Clonetech, Palo Alto, Calif.) between the Sac I and Hind III sites as shown in FIG. 1A. The construct was then transformed into DH5α cells. Transformants were screened and positive clones containing plasmid with the correct orientation of the insert were cultured.

Generation of F₁-ATPase alpha subunit-RFP fusion protein. The F₁-ATPase α-subunit clone (1,662 bp) was generated by PCR from an amygdala cDNA library using F₁-ATPase α-subunit forward primer (5′GAGGGAGCTCAGCTGCAAGGATGCTGTCC3′ (SEQ ID NO. 3), Sac I recognition site underlined) and F₁-ATPase α-subunit reverse primer (5′ GAGAGAAGCTTTTACCGTTCAAACCCAGC3′ (SEQ ID NO. 4), Hind III recognition site underlined). The PCR product was cloned into the pDsRed2-C1 vector (Clonetech) between the Sac I and Hind III sites as shown in FIG. 1B. The construct was then transformed into DH5α cells. Transformants were screened, and positive clones containing plasmid with the correct orientation of the insert were cultured.

Cell Culture and Transfection. Human liver cells (HepG2 cell line, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, La.) were grown and maintained in Dulbecco's modified eagle's medium (Gibco, Carlsbad, Calif.) containing 10% fetal bovine serum, penicillin (1,000 u/ml), and streptomycin (1,000 u/ml). For transient transfection experiments, the HepG2 cell line was seeded into 24-well plates (Corning, VWR, West Chester, Pa.) at 50-70% confluency. For each well of HepG2 cells, 0.8 μg of either the pATPase beta-GFP or pATPase alpha-RFP and 2.4 μl of Fugene6 (Roche, Indianapolis, Ind.) were incubated with 100 μl of Optimem (Gibco) for 30 min at room temperature. The cells were transfected using this mixture in 1 ml total volume for 16-18 h and visualized by microscopy 18-24 h after the transfection. For deconvolution microscopy (Zeiss Axioplan 2 imaging system, Thorrnwood, N.Y.), microscope cover slips (Fisher, Pittsburgh, Pa.) were pre-treated and placed in a 12-well plate. Cell culture and transfection procedures on glass slides were the same as described above. To image the live cells in real time, cells were cultured in the Lab-Tek II chambered coverglass (Nalge Nunc International, Rochester, N.Y.), and were observed using a confocal microscope (Zeiss NSM 510 META) with an inverted camera.

EXAMPLE 2

Enterostatin Alters F₁-ATPase Beta Subunit Cell Location in HepG2 Cells

Either 0.5 or 2 μM enterostatin was added to the HepG2 cells after transfection with either alpha subunit-RFP or beta subunit-GFP for 16-18 hrs. After incubation with enterostatin for 15, 30, or 60 min, the cover slide was removed from the well and placed on a glass slide. Protein expression in HepG2 cells was then observed using deconvolution microscopy.

Enterostatin did not change the distribution of expressed F₁-ATPase alpha subunit-RFP in HepG2 within the time of incubation with either concentration of enterostatin (FIG. 2B). However, after incubation with both 0.5 and 2 uM enterostatin, F₁-ATPase beta subunit-GFP was clearly relocated toward the cell periphery (FIG. 2A). To study this event in real time, a confocal microscope with an inverted camera was used to observe protein localization in transfected HepG2 cells at the different incubation times with 2 μM enterostatin for both the beta subunit of F₁-ATPase (FIG. 3A) and the alpha subunit of F₁-ATPase (FIG. 3B).

EXAMPLE 3

F₁-ATPase Beta Subunit in Plasma Membrane of Liver, Pancreas and Amygdala Cells

Using Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry, F₁-ATPase β-Subunit was discovered present in the plasma membrane and mitochondrial membranes of liver, pancreas and amygdala cells from rats. The purified F₁-ATPase β-Subunit (200 μg/ml) (produced as described in Appendix B) in Freunds complete adjuvant (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) was injected subcutaneously at multiple sites on the back of New Zealand white rabbits. Booster doses, diluted into Freunds incomplete adjuvant, were administered at weeks 4, 8 and 12. Blood was collected from injected animals on weeks 0, 4, 8, and 12. Rabbit antiserum was prepared by centrifugation (2000×g, 30 min, 4° C.) and stored at −20° C. in aliquots. The antibody was purified by passing over a protein A bead column (Sigma Chemical Co.). The antibody dilution necessary for antigen detection was assayed by an ELISA. Ninety six-well plates were coated with 100 ng/well of purified F₁-ATPase β-Subunit in sodium carbonate buffer (pH 9.6) and incubated overnight at 4° C. The primary and secondary antibodies used were as described below.

The ability of the antibody to detect the purified F₁-ATPase β-subunit was shown using an immunoblot technique. Purified proteins were transferred onto polyvinylidene fluoride membranes and incubated with the anti-rabbit rat F₁-ATPase beta subunit antibody (1:1000) as a primary antibody and an anti-rabbit IgG peroxidase goat antibody (1:2000; Sigma Chemical Co.) as a secondary antibody. Immune complexes were visualized using the ECL Western blotting detection system (Amersham, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom). As a negative control, the primary antibody was replaced with a non-immune rabbit IgG.

To prepare plasma membrane fractions, liver, amygdala, and pancreas tissues were separately extracted from rats and washed three times with 200 μl of extraction buffer on ice (10 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, containing 200 mM mannitol, 70 mM sucrose, and 1 mM EGTA) before homogenization. The washed tissue was homogenized in 10 volumes of ice-cold homogenization buffer (extraction buffer containing Mini-complete protease cocktail to final concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, [Roche, Indianapolis, Ind.]) using a Potter-Elvehjem Teflon-glass homogenizer. The homogenates were centrifuged at 600 g for 5 min at 4° C., the supernatants removed, and then centrifuged at 16,000 g for 20 min at 4° C. to yield the predominantly mitochondrial fraction. The 16,000 g supernatants containing plasma membrane and cytosolic components were centrifuged at 100,000 g for 1 hr at 4° C. to sediment the plasma membrane fractions. The fractions-containing the plasma membrane and the mitochondrial membrane were checked for purity using the marker enzymes alkaline phosphatase and cytochrome c oxidase respectively (Sigma Chemical Co., St Louis, Mo.). The purified membrane fractions were then tested for presence of F₁-ATPase β-subunit using the antibody described above in a Western blot analysis.

The results for amygdala, liver, and pancreas are shown respectively in FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C. The F₁-ATPase β-subunit was shown to be present in all three tissues, in both the plasma membrane and the mitochondrial membrane. This is the first report of the presence of this enzyme in the plasma membrane of brain and pancreatic cells. The lower molecular size of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit in pancreatic plasma membrane as shown in FIG. 4C may reflect either some proteolysis during tissue homogenization or that the protein occurs naturally in a cleaved (shorter) form in the plasma membrane of pancreatic cells. FIG. 4D indicates the presence of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane of liver cells using immunohistochemistry. FIG. 4D was obtained using conventional immunohistochemistry using a primary antibody to the F₁-ATPase β-subunit and a secondary antibody to rabbit IgG coupled to horseradish peroxidase.

EXAMPLE 4

Diagnostic Test to Measure the Effectiveness of Enterostatin Treatment

Lymphocytes will be collected from human subjects and used to assay the level of plasma membrane ATPase activity and the increase in plasma membrane F₁-ATPase β-subunit in response to enterostatin. It is believed that lymphocytes are a good indicator of the relative localization of this protein to plasma membranes due to the presence of enterostatin in other body tissues, and of the ATPase activity of this protein.

The change in enterostatin-related ATPase activity with time will be used as an index of the ability of enterostatin to promote translocation of the protein into the plasma membranes of other tissues, e.g., liver or pancreas. Lymphocyte cell-surface ATPase activity will be assayed using [α-³²P]ATP as substrate and assaying for the production of ADP. Freshly prepared lymphocytes will be incubated with or without enterostatin for 30 min and then assayed for cell surface ATPase activity. The difference in activity will reflect the level of F₁-ATPase β-subunit translocated into the membrane in response to enterostatin. This assumption will be validated using lymphocytes transfected with beta subunit F1 ATP synthase-green fluorescent protein construct, and visually measuring the level of translocation by confocal microscopy. This level of translocation will then be correlated with changes in cell surface ATPase activity.

After validation of the assay, lymphocytes will be prepared from a cross section of human subjects that will include lean healthy individuals, metabolic syndrome subjects, moderately and severely obese individuals. We hypothesize that lymphocyte cell surface ATPase activity will be negatively correlated with cholesterol levels, Body Mass Index and with the anorectic response to enterostatin. We also believe that the lymphocyte F₁-ATPase β-subunit increase due to enterostatin will be correlated with the effectiveness of treating the individual with enterostatin. Thus this assay will be used to identify individuals who would benefit from enterostatin therapy.

EXAMPLE 5

Identification of Agonists/Antagonists of Enterostatin

To identify other small molecules, compounds or enterostatin agonists/antagonists that alter the partitioning of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into the plasma membrane, a number of experiments will be conducted in a variety of cell lines.

Insulin-secreting cells. INS-1 cells shall be used that sensitive or resistant to glucagons-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucose. GLP-1 is an insulin secretion stimulating peptide. Additional cell types lacking receptors for other peptides could be used. These cells will be transfected with beta subunit ATP synthase-green fluorescent protein (BATPS-GFP) construct. The effects of enterostatin, enterostatin analogues (examples are given in Table 1 in Appendix B), enterostatin agonists and antagonists, and other small molecule compounds will be studied on the movement of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit protein into the plasma membrane. The ability to compartmentalize the protein to the plasma membrane will be correlated with changes in cellular ATP levels and the effects of enterostatin or other secretagogues on insulin secretion.

HepG2 cells or primary hepatocytes cultures. HepG2 or primary hepatocyte cells will be used to show that enterostatin regulates high density lipoprotein (HDL) uptake and cholesterol transport through the promotion of translocating beta subunit ATP synthase into the plasma membrane. We shall show that enterostatin increases the binding of ¹²⁵I-labelled free Apo A1 to plasma membranes from HepG2 cells, and that this binding is correlated with an increase in ATPase activity and ADP production inside the cell, and that the effect is absent when the cells are stimulated by ADP. Further we shall show that the ability of enterostatin to promote these events is increased when the concentration of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit in plasma membranes is increased. The amount of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membranes will be measured using the BATPS-GFP construct as described above.

Human endothelial cells. Human endothelial cells derived from umbilical veins or other sources will be used to study the effect of enterostatin on angiogenesis. The ability to bind angiostatin will be correlated with the level of beta subunit F1 ATPsynthase in the plasma membranes, and the co-localization of angiostatin and enterostatin binding shown by confocal immunofluorescent microscopy. Further, the effect of transfection of BATPS-GFP construct on these functions will be studied. The effects of enterostatin on vessel proliferation in an in vitro assay of adipose tissue angiogenesis will also be studied. We expect enterostatin will inhibit angiogenesis since incorporation of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into the plasma membrane will reduce the ability of angiostatin to bind to the F₁-ATPase α-subunit.

Cancer cells. The effects of enterostatin on the response of cancer cells to hypoxic challenge will be studied. Either breast cancer or prostate cancer tumor cell lines will be used to show that enterostatin affects apoptosis markers and/or cell survival, and that this effect is related to the level of plasma membrane F₁-ATPase β-subunit. Cells will also be transfected with the BATPS-GFP construct to show that enterostatin induces movement of the protein into the plasma membrane fraction and that this translocation influences cell survival and apoptosis. These transfected cells could also be used to search for small molecule agonists/antagonists or mimetics of enterostatin. We expect enterostatin to increase apoptosis and death of cancer cells because of its effects on angiostatin binding as discussed above.

Miscellaneous

The term “enterostatin” used herein and in the claims refers to the peptide enterostatin, its derivatives and analogs. The terms “derivatives” and “analogs” are understood to be compounds that are similar in structure to enterostatin and that exhibit a qualitatively similar effect to the unmodified enterostatin. Examples of such derivatives and analogs can be found in Appendix B, Table 1.

The term “enterostatin agonist” as used herein refers to a molecule that selectively increases the translocation of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into the plasma membrane of certain mammalian tissues in which enterostatin increases the translocation. An agonist can act by any mechanism, such as binding the F₁-ATPase β-subunit at the normal enterostatin binding site, thereby mimicking enterostatin and promoting receptor signaling. As used herein, enterostatin agonist can include mimetics of enterostatin. An enterostatin agonist can also act, for example, by increasing the binding ability of enterostatin, or by favorably altering the conformation of the enterostatin receptor.

The term “enterostatin antagonist” as used herein refers to a compound that selectively inhibits or decreases the translocation of the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into the plasma membrane in tissues in which enterostatin would increase the translocation. An antagonist can act by any antagonistic mechanism, such as by binding to enterostatin or to F₁-ATPase β-subunit, thereby inhibiting binding between enterostatin and the F₁-ATPase β-subunit. An enterostatin antagonist can also act indirectly, for example, by modifying or altering the native conformation of either enterostatin or F₁-ATPase β-subunit.

The term “therapeutically effective amount” as used herein refers to an amount of enterostatin or its analogs, or its agonists or antagonists, sufficient to change the amount of F1-ATPase beta subunit in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells to a statistically significant degree (p<0.05). The dosage ranges for the administration of enterostatin, its analogs or antagonist are those that produce the desired effect. Generally, the dosage will vary with the age, weight, condition, sex of the patient, and type of cell. A person of ordinary skill in the art, given the teachings of the present specification, may readily determine suitable dosage ranges. The dosage can be adjusted by the individual physician in the event of any contraindications. In any event, the effectiveness of treatment can be determined by monitoring the level of F₁-ATPase beta subunit in the plasma membrane methods well known to those in the field. Moreover, enterostatin, its analogs, agonists, or antagonists can be applied in pharmaceutically acceptable carriers known in the art. The application can be oral, by injection, or topical, providing that in an oral administration the compounds are preferably protected from digestion.

The complete disclosures of all references cited in this application are hereby incorporated by reference. Also, incorporated by reference is the complete disclosure of the following documents: M. Park et al., “The F₁-ATPase β-subunit is the putative enterostatin receptor,” Peptides, vol. 25, pp. 2127-33; available online 19 Oct. 2005; and M. Park et al. “Enterostatin regulates partitioning of its receptor, the F₁-ATPase β-subunit into plasma membranes,” a poster presented at the North American Association for the Study of Obesity, Las Vegas, Nev., on Nov. 15, 2004. In the event of an otherwise irreconcilable conflict, however, the present specification shall control.

REFERENCES

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1. A method of measuring the activity of a compound as an enterostatin agonist or antagonist, said method comprising the sequential steps of: a. Contacting an in vitro mammalian cell with the compound in the presence of enterostatin under conditions wherein enterostatin will increase the amount of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane of the cell to a known level, and b. Measuring the resulting concentration of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane, Wherein an increased level of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane above the known level due to enterostatin alone indicates that the compound possesses activity as an enterostatin agonist and wherein a decreased level of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane below the known level due to enterostatin alone indicates that the compound possesses activity as an enterostatin antagonist.
 2. A method of measuring the activity of a compound as an enterostatin agonist, said method comprising the sequential steps of: a. Contacting an in vitro mammalian cell with the compound in the presence of enterostatin under conditions wherein enterostatin will increase the amount of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane of the cell to a known level, and b. Measuring the resulting concentration of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane, Wherein an increased level of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane above the known level due to enterostatin alone indicates that the compound possesses activity as an enterostatin agonist.
 3. A method of measuring the activity of a compound as an enterostatin antagonist, said method comprising the sequential steps of: a. Contacting an in vitro mammalian cell with the compound in the presence of enterostatin under conditions wherein enterostatin will increase the amount of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane of the cell to a known level, and b. Measuring the resulting concentration of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane, Wherein a decreased level of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane below the known level due to enterostatin alone indicates that the compound possesses activity as an enterostatin antagonist.
 4. A method for assaying the responsiveness of a mammalian patient to a compound selected from the group consisting of enterostatin, enterostatin agonists, and enterostatin antagonists; said method comprising the steps of: a. Isolating from the patient cells selected from the group consisting of liver cells, brain cells, pancreatic cells, lymphocytes, and endothelial cells; b. Administering a therapeutically effective amount of the compound to the isolated cells in vitro; and c. Measuring the amount of F₁-ATPase β-subunit in the plasma membrane of the isolated cells.
 5. A method as recited in claim 4, wherein the cells comprise lymphocytes, and wherein the compound comprises enterostatin. 